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IS 800 : 2007 General Construction in Steel

This Indian Standard (Third Revision) was adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards, after the draft finalized by the Structural Engineering and Structural Sections Sectional Committee had been approved by the Civil Engineering Division Council.

The steel economy programme was initiated by erstwhile Indian Standards Institution in the year 1950 with the objective of achieving economy in the use of structural steel by establishing rational, efficient and optimum standards for structural steel products and their use. IS 800: 1956 was the first in the series of Indian Standards brought out under this programme. The standard was revised in 1962 and subsequently in 1984, incorporating certain very importmt changes.

IS 800 is the basic Code for general construction in steel structures and is the prime document for any structural design and has influence on many other codes governing the design of other special steel structures, such as towers, bridges, silos, chimneys, etc. Realising the necessity to update the standard to the state of the art of the steel construction technology and economy, the current revision of the standard was undertaken. Consideration has been given to the de~elopments taking place in the country and abroad, and necessary modifications and additions have been incorporated to make the standard more useful.

IS 456:2000 Plain and Reinforced Concrete

This Indian Standard (Fourth Revision) was adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards, after the draft finalized . by the Cement and Concrete Sectional Committee had been approved by the Civil Engineering Division Council. This standard was first published in 1953 under the title ‘Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete for general building construction’ and subsequently revised in 1957. The code was further revised in 1964 and published under modified title ‘Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete’,thus enlarging the scope of use of this code to structures other than general building construction also. The third revision was published in 1978, and it included limit state approach to design. This is the fourth revision of the  standard. This revision was taken up with a view to keeping abreast with the rapid development in the field of concrete technology and to bring in further modifications/improvements in the light of experience gained while using the earlier version of the standard.

1 SCOPE

1.1 This standard deals with the general structural use of plain and reinforced concrete. 

1.1.1 For the purpose of this standard,plain concrete structures are those where reinforcement,if provided is ignored for determination of strength of the structure. 

1.2 Special requirements of structures,such as shells, folded plates,arches.bridges,chimneys,blast resistant structures, hydraulic structures, liquid retaining structures and earthquake resistant structures,covered in respective standards have not been covered in this standard;these standards shall be used in.conjunction with this standard.

IS :1199-1959 Method of Sampling and Analysis of Concrete

0.1 This Indian Standard was adopted by the Indian Standards Institution on 10 November 1,959, after the draft finalized by the Cement and Concrete Sectional Committee had been approved by the Building Division Council.

.2 Testing plays an important role in controlling the quality of cement concrete work. Systematic testing of the raw materials for concrete as also, the concrete, both while it is fresh and after it has hardened, is an inseparable part of any quality control programme for concrete. It helps to achieve higher efficiency of the materials used and greater assurance of the performance of the concrete in regard to both strength and durability. The test methods used should be simple, direct and convenient in their application. This standard has been prepared with this object in view and provides a guide to the sampling, analysis, and determination of linear changes of concrete. Strength tests for concrete have been covered separately in IS : 516-1959 Methods of Tests for Strength of Concrete …

1. SCOPE 
1.1 This standard covers the methods of taking samples of concrete and their analysis 

Training Guidance

Eligibility Criteria:-

At least you must have completed 2nd year (any branch).

Process:-

Step 1 

Write an application letter to your HOD regarding summer internship/training.

A copy of letter is provided below

Then submit the above approval letter by to your training department in your college campus.

 Step 2

Your training department will provide application letter to the GM of respective department .

A copy of letter is provided below

Step 3 

Receive the letter from GM and visit the GM of project as mentioned in letter.

A copy of letter is provided below.

And follow the instructions as said.

Personality

Personality

Definitions:

Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system–it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts.

Gordon Allport coined the most frequent used definition:
Personality—“the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”

Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.
It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits.
S.R.Maddi defined Personality as “ a set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the behaviour (thought ,feeling and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understand as a sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment “.

Personality Theories

In order to throw light on various aspects of personality, a number of studies have been undertaken by many psychologists. The results of some of such studies have been widely accepted and applied. These are termed as theories of personality which help us to understand & predict the human behaviour in a better way. Some of the important theories of personality are briefly explained below

1. Psychoanalytical Theory

2. Socio-psychological Theory

3. Trait Theory

4. Self Theory

1. PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY

Psychoanalytical theory was developed by the well known psychologist Sigmund Freud (Austrian neurologist & the founder of psychoanalysis). This theory is based on the notion (concept) that a man is motivated more by unseen forces than by conscious &logical thinking. During clinical research Freud found that his patient’s behaviour could not be always consciously explained.This led him to believe that the main motivating force behind a particular human behaviour is primarily hidden in the unconscious frame.

Explaining this unconscious framework, he used the following three conflicting psychoanalytical terms

i. The Id

ii. The Ego

iii. The Super Ego

THE SUPER EGO

Super Ego represents that higher level force which stimulates a man to behave keeping in mind the social & personal norms.It can be termed as the conscience of person.It is of normative &ethical nature.

With the passage of time, a child learns the values and norms of his family,friends and the society at large and also develops his own values and norms. Based on these values and norms, the Super Ego continuously tells a man what is right and what is wrong and puts pressure to act accordingly.

Explanation with Example– Suppose a boy passes through a sweet shop & eyes on Gulab Jamun kept on the counter of the shop.Now, the Id will stimulate him to eat Gulab Jamun immediately. The Ego may remind him that right now he is not feeling well as such the sweet should not be taken. The Super Ego may further remind him that the Gulab Jamun are laying in the open as such the advice of his parents not to eat unhygienic items must be obeyed &thus the sweet must not be consumed.

THE ID

Id represents that para-normal energy which stimulates a man to satisfy his sexual and other biological needs (like hunger or thrust etc.) immediately at any cost.It is of unconscious and illogical nature.It has features of aggression,power and domination.

THE EGO

Ego represents that forces which inspires a man to satisfy his sexual and other biological needs at an appropriate time, place and manner. It is of conscious and logical nature.It is related with the hard realities of daily life.Ego continuously tries to control Id – whereas Id puts pressure on a man to gratify his libido (i.e., sex related) needs at the earliest, Ego advices him not to do so till the right time and place arrive.

The psychoanalytical theory helps to analyse and understand those human behaviours which occur unconsciously.

For example:-The increasing problems of alcoholism,Drug abuse,Sexual abuse,Women teasing & sabotage etc.

2.Socio-psychological Theory:-

The Socio-psychological theory has been contributed by such authors as Alfred Adler (an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology),
Erich Fromm, Karen Horney and Sullivan. This theory emphasises on the important role played by society in forming personality of a person. According to this theory, a man tries to meet the needs of the society and in return the society facilitates the man to meet his needs. This interaction between the society and the man is the foundation of a person’s personality. During this interaction a man learns a lot and accordingly modifies his personality. Thus this theory assumes personality as the sum total of all that a person has learned.

3.Trait Theory :-

This theory is based on the assumption that a person’s personality is primarily based on his traits. Therefore by looking at one’s traits, a fairly good idea about his personality can be made.

A trait may be termed as any attribute, peculiarity, characteristic, variable or feature of persistent nature which is visible in one’s thinking and acting. Every individual has a number of traits but all the traits are not found in all the persons. Moreover, the penetration or depth of a trait vary from person to person.

Gordon Allport and Raymond B. Cattell have done pioneering studies for Trait Theory. Allport has based his study on ‘common traits’ and ‘personal dispositions’. The former has been used for comparing persons on the basis of their traits whereas ‘personal dispositions’ have been used to find the uniqueness of those traits in the concerned persons.

He has classified the common traits in 6 (in abbreviation PASTER) categories—

1. P- Political
2. A- Aesthetic(i.e., sensitive to beauty or artistic)
3. S- Social
4. T- Theoretical
5. E- Economic
6. R- Religious

These categories of traits are present in different degrees or quantities in a person which he has termed as ‘personal dispositions’. The personal distribution of traits in quantitative terms has been classified at three levels—

I. Cardinal (most pervasive)

II. Central (unique & limited in number) and

III. Secondary (peripheral or irrelevant)

On the basis of ‘personal dispositions’ of ‘common traits’— i.e., in what quantity the different traits are visible in an individual— one’s personality can be understood.

Adopting a different approach, Cattell (The Scientific Analysis of Personality) has group the traits in two categories—

1. Surface traits
2. Source traits

Surface traits refers to those traits which are visible on the surface of one’s personality. On the other hand, source traits are the root or basic traits which generate surface traits

Cattell has identified 35 surface traits (e.g., honestdishonest, wise-foolish, sociable-seclusive, affectionate-cold etc.) and 12 source traits (e.g., toughminded and sensitive, trusting-suspicious, practicalimaginative, self-assured-apprehensive, uncontrolledcontrolled etc.).

4.Self Theory:–

Self theory, a brain child of Carl C. Rogers, assumes that a person himself shapes his personality— i.e., an individual’s personality is primarily based on his self. Self in simple words, means how one perceives about one’s merits and demerits in his own eyes and through others eyes. He has presented the following 4 aspects of the self concept—

1. Self-Image
2. Ideal-Self
3. Looking Glass-Self
4. Real-Self

OBIP

Toggle #1

Personality

Definitions:

Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system–it looks at some aggregate whole that is greater than the sum of the parts.

Gordon Allport coined the most frequent used definition:
Personality—“the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”

Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.
It is most often described in terms of measurable traits that a person exhibits.
S.R.Maddi defined Personality as “ a set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the behaviour (thought ,feeling and actions) of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understand as a sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment “.

Personality Theories

In order to throw light on various aspects of personality, a number of studies have been undertaken by many psychologists. The results of some of such studies have been widely accepted and applied. These are termed as theories of personality which help us to understand & predict the human behaviour in a better way. Some of the important theories of personality are briefly explained below

1. Psychoanalytical Theory

2. Socio-psychological Theory

3. Trait Theory

4. Self Theory

1. PSYCHOANALYTICAL THEORY

Psychoanalytical theory was developed by the well known psychologist Sigmund Freud (Austrian neurologist & the founder of psychoanalysis). This theory is based on the notion (concept) that a man is motivated more by unseen forces than by conscious &logical thinking. During clinical research Freud found that his patient’s behaviour could not be always consciously explained.This led him to believe that the main motivating force behind a particular human behaviour is primarily hidden in the unconscious frame.

Explaining this unconscious framework, he used the following three conflicting psychoanalytical terms

i. The Id

ii. The Ego

iii. The Super Ego

THE SUPER EGO

Super Ego represents that higher level force which stimulates a man to behave keeping in mind the social & personal norms.It can be termed as the conscience of person.It is of normative &ethical nature.

With the passage of time, a child learns the values and norms of his family,friends and the society at large and also develops his own values and norms. Based on these values and norms, the Super Ego continuously tells a man what is right and what is wrong and puts pressure to act accordingly.

Explanation with Example– Suppose a boy passes through a sweet shop & eyes on Gulab Jamun kept on the counter of the shop.Now, the Id will stimulate him to eat Gulab Jamun immediately. The Ego may remind him that right now he is not feeling well as such the sweet should not be taken. The Super Ego may further remind him that the Gulab Jamun are laying in the open as such the advice of his parents not to eat unhygienic items must be obeyed &thus the sweet must not be consumed.

THE ID

Id represents that para-normal energy which stimulates a man to satisfy his sexual and other biological needs (like hunger or thrust etc.) immediately at any cost.It is of unconscious and illogical nature.It has features of aggression,power and domination.

THE EGO

Ego represents that forces which inspires a man to satisfy his sexual and other biological needs at an appropriate time, place and manner. It is of conscious and logical nature.It is related with the hard realities of daily life.Ego continuously tries to control Id – whereas Id puts pressure on a man to gratify his libido (i.e., sex related) needs at the earliest, Ego advices him not to do so till the right time and place arrive.

The psychoanalytical theory helps to analyse and understand those human behaviours which occur unconsciously.

For example:-The increasing problems of alcoholism,Drug abuse,Sexual abuse,Women teasing & sabotage etc.

2.Socio-psychological Theory:-

The Socio-psychological theory has been contributed by such authors as Alfred Adler (an Austrian medical doctor, psychotherapist, and founder of the school of individual psychology),
Erich Fromm, Karen Horney and Sullivan. This theory emphasises on the important role played by society in forming personality of a person. According to this theory, a man tries to meet the needs of the society and in return the society facilitates the man to meet his needs. This interaction between the society and the man is the foundation of a person’s personality. During this interaction a man learns a lot and accordingly modifies his personality. Thus this theory assumes personality as the sum total of all that a person has learned.

3.Trait Theory :-

This theory is based on the assumption that a person’s personality is primarily based on his traits. Therefore by looking at one’s traits, a fairly good idea about his personality can be made.

A trait may be termed as any attribute, peculiarity, characteristic, variable or feature of persistent nature which is visible in one’s thinking and acting. Every individual has a number of traits but all the traits are not found in all the persons. Moreover, the penetration or depth of a trait vary from person to person.

Gordon Allport and Raymond B. Cattell have done pioneering studies for Trait Theory. Allport has based his study on ‘common traits’ and ‘personal dispositions’. The former has been used for comparing persons on the basis of their traits whereas ‘personal dispositions’ have been used to find the uniqueness of those traits in the concerned persons.

He has classified the common traits in 6 (in abbreviation PASTER) categories—

1. P- Political
2. A- Aesthetic(i.e., sensitive to beauty or artistic)
3. S- Social
4. T- Theoretical
5. E- Economic
6. R- Religious

These categories of traits are present in different degrees or quantities in a person which he has termed as ‘personal dispositions’. The personal distribution of traits in quantitative terms has been classified at three levels—

I. Cardinal (most pervasive)

II. Central (unique & limited in number) and

III. Secondary (peripheral or irrelevant)

On the basis of ‘personal dispositions’ of ‘common traits’— i.e., in what quantity the different traits are visible in an individual— one’s personality can be understood.

Adopting a different approach, Cattell (The Scientific Analysis of Personality) has group the traits in two categories—

1. Surface traits
2. Source traits

Surface traits refers to those traits which are visible on the surface of one’s personality. On the other hand, source traits are the root or basic traits which generate surface traits

Cattell has identified 35 surface traits (e.g., honest dishonest, wise-foolish, sociable-seclusive, affectionate-cold etc.) and 12 source traits (e.g., tough minded and sensitive, trusting-suspicious, practical imaginative, self-assured-apprehensive, uncontrolled controlled etc.).

4.Self Theory:–

Self theory, a brain child of Carl C. Rogers, assumes that a person himself shapes his personality— i.e., an individual’s personality is primarily based on his self. Self in simple words, means how one perceives about one’s merits and demerits in his own eyes and through others eyes. He has presented the following 4 aspects of the self concept—

1. Self-Image
2. Ideal-Self
3. Looking Glass-Self
4. Real-Self

Chain Surveying

Chain survey is the simplest method of surveying. In chain survey, only measurements are taken in the field, and the rest work, such as plotting calculation etc. are done in the office. Here only linear measurements are made i.e. no angular measurements are made. This is most suitably adapted to small plane areas with very few details. If carefully done, it gives quite accurate results.

The necessary requirements for field work are

• Chain
• Tape 
• Ranging-Rod
• Arrows 
• Cross staff

Parts of Chains used in Surveying

The chain consists of many small parts used for handling or reading the measurements.

• At the ends chain is provided with brass handle with swivel joint so that it can be easy to roll or unroll the chain without twisting and knots.
• At every 10th link is provided with a tally of one teeth, 20th link with a tally of two teeth and so on till 40th link. This is provided for the easy reading of measurements.
• At the center of the chain is provided with a circular talley used for easy reading.

 

Types of Chains used in Surveying

Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divide into following types,

1. Metric chains
2. Steel band or Band chain
3. Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain
4. Engineer’s chain
5. Revenue chain

A. Metric chains

Metric chains are the most commonly used chain in India. These types of chains comes in many lengths such as 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters. Most commonly used is 20m chain. Tallies are provided at every 2m of the chain for quick reading. Every link of this type of chain is 0.2m. The total length of the chain is marked on the brass handle at the ends.

B. Steel band or Band chain

These types of chain consist of a long narrow strip of steel of uniform width of 12 to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. this chain is divides by brass studs at every 20cm or instead of brass studs, band chain may have graduated engraving as centimeter.

For easy use and workability band chains are wound on steel crosses or metal reels from which they can be easily unrolled. These steel bands are available in 20m and 30m length and the width of about 12-16mm.

C. Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain

Gunter chain comes in standard 66ft. These chain consists of 100links, each link being 0.66ft or 7.92inches. The length 66ft is selected because it is convenient in land measurements.

10 square Gunter’s chains = 1 Acre

10 Gunter chains = 1 Furlong

80 Gunter chains = 1 mile

D. Engineer’s chain

This chain comes in 100ft length. Its consist of 100 links each link being 1ft long. At every 10 links a brass ring or tags are provided for indication of 10 links. Readings are taken in feet and decimal.

E. Revenue Chain

The standard size of this type of chain is 33ft. The number of links are 16, each link being 2  ft. This chain is commonly used in cadastral survey.

Testing and Adjustment of Chain

As the chain is a metal made, it may undergo many changes due to temperature effect or human error and etc. So for all lengths of chain a tolerance is given,

5m chain = + or – 3mm

10m chain = + or – 3mm

20m chain = + or – 5mm

30m chain = + or – 8mm

Chain length shorten due to

1. Bending of links.
2. Sticking of mud in the rings

Chain length increases due to

• Opening of small rings.
• Wearing of surfaces.

Chains may be tested with respect to

• Steel tape
• Permanent test gauge
• Pegs driven in the field at required distances
• Permanent test gauge made with dressed stones

If chain is found long, then

• Close the joins of the rings
• Reshape the elongated rings
• Remove one or two rings
• Replace worn out rings

If chain is found short, then

• Straighten the links
• Replace the small rings with big one
• Insert additional rings
• Flattening the circular rings

Errors in chain Surveying

Errors in chaining may be classified as:

• Personal errors
• Compensating errors, and
• Cumulating errors.

Personal Errors

Wrong reading, wrong recording, reading from wrong end of chain

etc., are personal errors. These errors are serious errors and cannot be detected easily. Care should be taken to avoid such errors.

Compensating Errors

These errors may be sometimes positive and sometimes negative. Hence

They are likely to get compensated when large number of readings are taken. The magnitude of such errors can be estimated by theory of probability. The following are the examples of such errors:

• Incorrect marking of the end of a chain.
• Fractional part of chain may not be correct though total length is corrected.
• Graduations in tape may not be exactly same throughout.
• In the method of stepping while measuring sloping ground, plumbing may be crude.

Cumulative Errors

The errors that occur always in the same direction are called cumulative errors. In each reading the error may be small, but when large number of measurements are made they may be considerable, since the error is always on one side. Examples of such errors are:

1. Bad ranging
2. Bad straightening
3. Erroneous length of chain
4. Temperature variation
5. Variation in applied pull
6. Non-horizontality
7. Sag in the chain, if suspended for measuring horizontal distance on a sloping ground.

Errors (i), (ii), (vi) and (vii) are always +ve since they make measured length more than actual.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Chains in Surveying

Advantages of Chains in Surveying

• Chain survey is simplest and commonest method used in surveying exercises
• The equipment used to conduct chain survey are simple to use,
• The equipment used in chain survey can easily be replaced. For example measuring rods can be replaced with measuring tape.
• This method does not involve complicated mathematical calculation. I know this is the relief to those who are afraid of mathematics
• In chain survey few people are needed to conduct the survey. Normally chain survey team has three people Booker, leader and follower.

Disadvantages of Chains in Surveying

• Simple chain survey cannot be conducted in built up areas and large areas.
• Simple chain survey is subject to several chances of errors of accumulation which may cause by problem of chain. The chain linkage may fail to stretch up properly and result in inaccurate data. Also clogging of chain may read to error in reading.
• It is time consuming
• It may not be conducted in areas with steep slopes or water logged areas. Chain survey is usually conducted in dry areas with gentle slopes. It becomes more complicated when survey is conducted in areas that are too wet.
• Chain survey becomes more complicated method when there are raised points (obstacles) in between areas to be surveyed

Principles of chain Surveying.

(i) First of all, the site should be inspected with a view to find a suitable location for stations.

(ii) The survey lines should be as few as practicable and such that the framework may be plotted.

(iii) If possible, a base line should be run roughly through the middle of the area on which the framework of triangles covering the major portion of the area may be built up.

(iv) All the triangles should be well conditioned, i.e., no angle should be less than 30° or greater than 120° in a triangle.

 

(v) Each portion of the survey should be provided with check lines.

(vi) The offsets should be short; particularly for locating features which are important.

A number of subsidiary lines or tie lines should be run to locate the details and to avoid long offsets.

(vii) As few lines as possible should be run without offsets.

(viii) The obstacles to ranging and chaining should be avoided as far as possible.

(ix) The lines should lie as far as possible on the ground level.

(x) In lines lying along a road, the possibility of interruption during chain surveying, a line at one side of the road should be drawn.

(xi) The main Stations should be inter-visible and the main principle of surveying, i.e., working from the whole to the part, should be strictly observed.

(xii) The lines should be measured in an order avoiding unnecessary walking between stations.

Chain Surveying Procedure:

For chain surveying, at least two men are required, but frequently three people are employed.

They are:

(1) The surveyor, who does the reading and booking,

(2) The leader, and

(3) The follower.

(i) To start the chaining of a line the follower holds the zero end of the chain in contact with the peg at the beginning of the line and presses the handle with his feet and stands firmly over it.

(ii) The leader holds another end of the chain and goes along with the arrows and ranging rods on the line.

(iii) Nearly at the end of the chain length, he stops and aligns with the help of ranging rod which he keeps vertical and faces the follower, who gives him instructions by his arms.

(iv) After alignment, the leader pulls the chain and inserts an arrow in to the ground to mark the end.

(v) The lateral measurements or offsets are taken from the chain line to any object that is to be plotted on the plan.

(vi) The chain line should be such that these offsets are as short as possible. While pulling the chain, care should be taken.

(vii) After taking the offsets, the leader picks up the staff rod and remaining arrows keeping the chain a little away from the line so that the arrow placed is not disturbed, starts moving ahead as before.

Watch the Video Below for Better understanding.

(viii) As the follower reaches the arrow with the near end of the chain, he should speak loud “chain” or “tape” to give a warning to the leader that he has nearly reached the arrow or a chain length and immediately the leader stops.

(ix) The follower holds the handle against the arrow and directs the leader to come in line as before.

(x) The leader again stretches the chain and fixes the arrow in the ground at another chain length or make a cross if the ground is firm.

(xi) Again, the leader walks in the line in the same manner and the follower now picks up the first arrow, comes to the second arrow and gives instructions for the third chain length.

(xii) Thus, the whole process is repeated until the end of the line is reached.

(xiii) The number of arrows with the follower is an indication of the number of full chain lengths completed at any time.

(xiv) After some time the number of arrows should be checked mutually by the follower and the leader so that no chain length is missed and no arrow is lost.

Generally, the number of arrows taken is ten and hence after fixing the tenth arrow, the leader speaks out “arrows” which means that this was the tenth chain line.

(xv) The follower then goes to the tenth arrow and picks it up after fixing a ranging rod there. The arrows are then handed over to the leader, and a record is made in the field book by the surveyor.

(xvi) For the fractional length of the Chain, the leader stretches the chain beyond the end station. While the follower holds the rear handle of the chain against the last arrow.

The leader reads the fractional chain length loudly, and the surveyor notes the entire length of the line.

Duties of the follower and leader During Chain Surveying.

The duties of the follower  (Chain man at the rear end of the chain) are;

(i) To give signals and instructions to the leader.

(ii) To place the leader in the line of the ranging rod.

(iii) To carry the rear handle.

(iv) To pick up the arrows.

The duties of the leader ( the chain man at the forward end or head ) are;

(i) To stretch the chain forward.

(ii) To insert the arrow at every chain length.

(iii) To obey the directions given by the follower.

Recording the measurements in the Field Book.

The field book is an oblong book with a hinge at the narrow edge, and the chain is represented in it by one or two red lines or blue lines ruled down centrally along the length of each page.

The booking or recording of the field work is commenced from the bottom of the first page. The double line book is better because the main chain line readings are separated from offset readings.

The station points are lettered or numbered, and a small rectangle or triangle is drawn in the field book to enclose the chaining figure at the station points.

 

The lines meeting at the station point are also marked, and the reference sketches are drawn on field book, and after this line survey, lines are run by chaining.

When a chain survey is to be conducted the necessary equipment should be taken, and reconnaissance or preliminary inspection, of the area, should be made.

By this inspection, the surveyor can judge the network.

Wooden pegs & ranging rods mark the station points.

Then, the stations are marked the reference sketches are drawn on field book, and after this, the survey lines are run by chaining.

Precautions.

The following points should be kept in view while booking the field notes.

(i) All the measurements should be recorded as soon as they are taken.

(ii) Each chain line should be recorded on a separate page of the field book.

(iii) Figuring and writing should be neat, and legible overwriting of the figures should be avoided completely.

(iv) The notes should be complete, and nothing should be left to memory.

(v) Notes should be so full and neat that the draftsman who is unfamiliar with the area surveyed may plot easily

(vi) Neat reference sketches should be given in the field book, and explanatory notes should be added.

(vii) The field book should be kept clean, and no entry should be made in it, nor it should be rubbed.

If an entry is wrong, a line should be drawn through it, and the count entry is made over it.

if an entire page of the Field book is to be discarded, it should be crossed and marked canceled and reference of the other page in which the correct entries are made should be given on the canceled page.